Chow solve the energy problem of the successful experience of environmental protection

 Chow: Solving the environmental problems of energy sources of the successful experience of
: First Financial Daily
China is facing serious energy and environmental problems. Energy consumption reduced by 20%, while in 2006 only 1.4 percentage points to complete the task.
However, we should see that China's efforts to solve environmental problems in energy, there are many success stories. in the development of clean energy on the solar panel production and export has increased significantly. in the air pollution control, the use of sulfur dioxide purifiers reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from power plants.
under the August 25, 2009 use of solar energy than the use of coal, oil, natural gas, or wind energy expensive, but the global economic downturn and the European Union on the purchase of solar panels to cut subsidies and reduce the price of solar panels. And last year, the solar panel prices fell nearly half, China enterprises have played a leading role. China's production costs are lower than other countries, which makes solar panels, increased production in China, particularly since March 2009, the central and local governments provide manufacturers with a large number of subsidies, including free land, R & D funds. state-owned banks for the industry to provide a loan interest rate much lower than the U.S. and European markets adequate funding.
China's largest manufacturer of solar panels, Suntech has become second only to the United States, the world's First Solar the second largest manufacturer of solar panels. In China, many companies have entered the market. Some companies are planning production in the United States to avoid the import of Chinese goods in the United States protectionist trade policies. Although solar power generation is increasing, but it still only a small source of energy, solar energy in 2020 is expected to total capacity (2000 MW) equivalent of one year only new coal-fired generating capacity in half.
solar panel industry, the successful development of that the Chinese government to promote economic development have the ability to identify important subsidies for energy products and to increase its output; Meanwhile, Chinese entrepreneurs are also able to prepare full advantage of government subsidies and favorable conditions for the production and marketing to expand its product and export.
promote the use of clean energy in China's success, not just in solar panels this case. In the past four years, China's wind energy production has doubled each year, more than expected this year United States as the world's first wind power generation equipment market. In addition, the construction of nuclear power plants in China far exceeds the number of nuclear power plants in other countries combined.
Princeton University's Woodrow. Wilson School of Public Relations Dr. Xu Yuandi thesis about a used to control sulfur dioxide air pollution purification success stories. in the Eleventh Five-Year Plan The most significant changes occurred in the coal-fired power plants: China had achieved in all new power plants with sulfur dioxide, converted old power plants to install cleaner. to the end of 2008, China has 363 million kilowatts electricity use of sulfur dioxide produced by purification treatment of sulfur dioxide, accounting for Total coal-fired power generation (601 million kilowatts) of 60%. In contrast, the end of 2005 the proportion was only 10%.
this achievement thanks to central government for local government leaders to mobilize and coal-fired Power Plants long effort. In order to mobilize the enthusiasm of local leaders, the right to stop large-scale construction projects affecting the environment (including new coal-fired power plants over 200 MW), as under the law, the implementation of large construction projects need to assess the environmental impact of the Environmental Protection Department, and obtain his approval. In order to strengthen site supervision visits, participate in the work of government officials at all levels of the 37,934 people in 2001 increased to 52,845 in 2006, representing an increase 39.9%.
to the plant director in terms of providing incentives for sulfur dioxide purifier use, megawatts to the grid when the price of electricity sales; If you close the purification of sulfur dioxide, then the plant will be fined 75 yuan / MWh. Although many devices as early as 2004, a coal-fired power plant sulfur dioxide purifiers started to enjoy price subsidies, but the penalties and other details of regulations begin until 2007.
reasons for successful control of sulfur dioxide emissions, what does? In China, these factors apply to the general control of air pollution? sulfur dioxide, the successful use of cleaner, mainly depends on two advantages: First, sources of pollution, namely coal-fired power plants, it is easy to find and control. Second, the solution is clear, that the use of sulfur dioxide purifiers. Therefore, local government officials, coal-fired power plants are easy to design transfer director in accordance with the implementation of the policy. and by the consumer or other industrial air pollution caused by producers may not be easily detected, and the solution is not so straightforward. However, the success of sulfur dioxide purifier demonstrated the central government in the control of air pollution on the determination and ability. With this determination, we hope the Government will dare to try to deal with those not easy or more difficult and time-consuming problem.
(author is Professor of Economics at Princeton University. Translation Assistant: Chen Qihui, Teng Yujuan, Weihong Li)

respond to the household registration transferred to oppose the people do not know history

 Sun Haiying called *** This is part of Chinese territory, to apply to blame the opposition to the remarks of the people, are they lack a basic understanding of national history, and advise these people Prior to always think twice.

News Playback:

20 days, media reports, more and more Japanese people will move into a place of origin and Russia, South Korea, there are territorial disputes in the Northern Territory. Kyodo News on the 20th of the procedures responsible for the four municipalities household interviews showed that, as of January, about 520 to do the procedure this news announcement, Sun Haiying then wrote on the Internet:

Sun Haiying Billed as the (Data for)

actor Sun Haiying recently published in the online application to join *** nationality of speech, the media connection Sun Haiying himself, he said this is just to express their patriotic feelings. The comments caused controversy, he said that those who criticize his own friends

I formal application will be transferred to China, my residence ***, I aspire to be the inhabitants of this island, there are written records from the beginning of mankind and that is part of China. I would like to request state approval of relevant departments through the Internet, the applicant, Sun Haiying, Lu Liping.

In order to slander the Party's interests is recommended that you own

 In order to slander the party's own benefit we recommend that you three great Moscow trials
mm Huang Cui Zhang Jin
CCTV host quietly, China familiar lines: Bukharin three, are in the Moscow trials were sentenced to death (the absence of the death penalty Trotsky) In 1988, Kamenev, Bukharin were rehabilitated, in order of final vindication Gorbachev Trotsky not had time to place a formal conclusion, the Soviet Union.
Moscow trials a total of three times, it is the climax of cleansing 1937-1938 repertoire mm naked public hearing the trial frame, and the defendant pleaded guilty to the same Executed. < br> 【Lenin created the party was eliminated】
cleansing Moscow trial is the most important part. three large trials are: August 19, 1936 hearing of the Cardiff is also the case of the United Center against the Soviet Union Trial sounded the rapidly, the third large trial, it is the cleansing of the ending of the pen. In addition, a large trial in the second and third large trial, 图哈切夫斯基 secret court case and ruling group.
three large number of accused were 16,17,21 trial. In addition to the second, third have 3 people in prison, the other defendants executed. and up to millions of people shot, imprisonment, exile, migration is in the country, various industries, the leading organs at all levels, decentralized.
Stalin's purges that came a letter for the direction: in the party's history has there been a variety of other anti-party clique hh leaders to express their dissatisfaction or opposition policies caught out in the wash.
cleansing Although a large number of innocent people crushed, but the biggest group of victims is the Soviet leaders and ordinary party members. In particular, the more the more the high-level hit harsh. Lenin led the Soviet era, was almost washed out the collective.
famous Nowitzki (absent), Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, Pida Cove, the rest is Stalin.
led the October Revolution in the 6th Central Committee members in 2 / 3 executed; 11 27 Great Central Committee, 20 were executed; 15 of the Political Bureau of the 7 large, with the exception of Stalin, the 6 people shot dead or assassination (Bukharin, Kamenev, Zinoviev, the base Love, Rykov, Trotsky); 1st 15 members of the Soviet Government, in addition to five people have died, but 9 were all shot.
was concluded, Lenin, Stalin, the party was wiped out.
【】
decision is just the most stunning in Moscow trials, this is only a statement without any evidence in criminal trials, is actually open to the public, and invited some Western journalists, diplomatic corps, and other independent observers attend as observers.
Westerners during the trial that only the socialist Soviet Union saw the incredible scenes appear: All the accused, no one person to defend themselves, they would take the initiative in court accused of a criminal himself, describes himself as not Ping Minfen not kill the devil, the unanimous request of the defendants they shot themselves hh final words of praise with the best of Comrade Stalin.
Kamenev former Politburo member, said: I think that decision is fair. Do not look back, to move forward, along with Stalin and the people go. is as dirty as the night of betrayal, betrayal of the party, the motherland, Stalin hh I dare say, I miss our evil plot was exposed and happy countries, to the party, to all the people kneel down that will certainly be disarmed hh Attorney-General's statements and the prosecution of the contents of same.
German left-wing writer, Feuchtwanger wrote: Newspapers inserted in the pocket and it looks more like a hh people who learned during the interactive discussion hh if the trial commissioned by a director to dramatize the situation, he may take many years to rehearsed many times in order for the defendant to such a tacit understanding hh The great orator was warm, and looked slack, swollen face livid, and he as good as dead read out their criminal mm nearly all defendants are similar.
be invited to most Western observers believe that after the trial is fair . a British lawyer wrote: decisions and statements of all defendants.
the Soviet Union has invited Western journalists to participate in the experience of political trials, 7 December 1930
Moscow trials are not perfect, there could have been avoided a small error:
Boltzmann Gore accused confessed that he was in November 1932 in Copenhagen, the son of joints, but the Danish newspaper stating that the hotel was dismantled in 1917;
Pida Cove defendant confessed, in December 1935 in Oslo in mid-air he landed near an airport, and planned by the German army Trotsky seizure of power, Norway the case of the defendant with large numbers of active after 50 years the CIA has used against prisoners think it is brain surgery, electric shock method or take special medications, drugs, hypnosis and other methods. invest in long-term study was an attempt to break the KGB's Pharmacy .
this medicine is not in laboratories.
Khrushchev's secret report reiterated in the famous joke: Stalin's pipe lost 10 Beria next day caught a thief, they all confess , while Stalin under the sofa in their own found the pipe.
Yeruo Fu claims that the testimony did not not get.
early 20's, gay men have to strongly criticized the Dzerzhinsky Cheka traces.
that time, they had worked out a statement to the prisoners to the experience of beating the original although the means of the most simple, but the VIP is a pain rather die than live, not far from the target. For inmates energy, the spirit of the ruthless trampling and destruction, so that prisoners self-esteem, confidence lost, you can do so. For example, secretary of the Central Committee of Ukraine is able to carry Ke Shor play, but face to face rape of his 16-year-old daughter, he is honest.
third great trial in Moscow exactly 50 years later, Bukharin has been vindicated, his 70-year-old widow always remember him, do not hesitate to give my life in exchange for Lenin's life, I love the Kirov, I did not done anything against the Stalin thing.
integrity I demand a new generation of young party leaders in the party's plenary session read out my letter, for I am rehabilitated, restored from the party.
comrades, you know, holding in your victory to advance the banner of communism, there are also one of my blood. cruel, Bukharin's wife to dictate the letter the young, he was into the prison, and later, the noble soul prostrate at the foot of the giant. He pleaded no grace like the man Deserted Wife change of heart, over and over to Stalin wrote:
sense. you can tell everything, write everything, complaining all the hh Everyone knows that I fully believe that he is your man. I have here a very embarrassing situation. You know, I have seen prison officers of each one of us l r, and they look like criminals, like watching over me, even though are measured. is a liar.
descendants of noble spirit, the ultimate easy to study dirty and disappointed, you can check the file that purges, the only former Deputy Minister of National Security of not leaving the table Gurao had Stalin, table loyalty, and the rest, are competing to varying degrees of loyalty and destroying their own table, and even biting people.
of the human spirit and soul will crash, even the head of the Ministry of Interior and Yeruo Fu Ya Geda is no exception, these two individuals Stalin has been abandoned immediately after the fawning.
pry from the export of mouth for many people, countless people directly ordered the deprivation of life Ya Geda, and intellectual atmosphere of strong Bukharin, Stalin used the same front words: kneel.
Yage Da wrote Stalin's submission, even not as Bukharin: interests of the party】
Moscow trial, the accused Western media has always been suspected of torture or drug control, Bukharin stated in court for this purpose, the so-called torture and drug anesthesia reactionary to say purely whimsical conjecture. < br> Khrushchev secretly read the thing I read in a sensation of the world Indeed, during the existence of widespread torture, but it has overturned the trial concluded there is considerable difficulty. of the second survey concluded that the entire department injustice, Molotov has a great guilt, but at this time Khrushchev be fired and cleansing question nothing, until the Gorbachev era.
decrypt files today show trial in Moscow of illegal use of torture and cruel means of the spirit of destruction, many people because the life of his wife and children before taking into account admission of guilt. For example Buha Lin did not confess, his 20-year-old wife and newborn son will immediately die, Keres Etinski If you do not sign the minutes of the trial, his wife and daughter would be shot.
Bukharin's wife and children Fortunately, in 1956, grew up in an orphanage there Yuri inquire into their own mother has just released from prison, thousands of miles to travel to Siberia. in prison for 20 years, Your father called Bukharin.
Kamenev guilty plea, failed to keep his wife, two sons and brother and sister-in-life; 图哈切斯基 marshal a more unfortunate that his mother was in Siberia图哈切夫斯基 couple were shot and cry, do not know the other two sons and three son also was shot, his wife and a daughter, a granddaughter and 图哈切斯基 been sent to the marshal's daughter, La They play in court as rushed as the rehearsal for severe punishment of their own, and can not do torture.
may Molotov on Zinoviev, then is another indispensable tool:
time, you can undoubtedly help the party lies. This is not to be denied. To discuss what? If the interests of the party required to do so, we should not only give our little reputation, should also be laid down their lives. However, the objective is not requires you to spread any lies. You are doing an objective act of betrayal of the interests of the party hh Without hope, the spirit has broken down, can wholeheartedly with the trial, is the only chance of a confession to the Party.
Moscow trial, Trotsky hoped that the Soviet Government to court to confront the extradition of its own, is of course rejected. But he if it is really on the court, he will throw his body with those to have been dead as sewage.
Trotsky said: The fundamental task of the unique history of tools senior officers in the army was almost wiped a country for all its citizens live in fear.
lessons learned and make it not happen again, it is the responsibility of all. the victims of Stalin's purges. Putin is cleansing the official history of the first head of state position, the Russians have been waiting for this for 70 years. Putin was responsible for the Federal Security Service, the predecessor of Stalin's reign is the KGB, it is the cleansing of the most important actors.
sadness at the scene, said Putin was a trembling voice, cleansing led to millions of people were persecuted to death, not afraid to express their views, they are the nation's most outstanding figures. regime will own most of the top members of the executions, an army officer corps in time of peace was almost total annihilation, the citizens of a country to see a car stopped outside the door to doubt that he would be arrested.
It is the history of the Soviet Union the most horrible, the darkest period of the disaster because it began to be concluded today, it leaves the history of bitter taste of all Soviet citizens have long been, and is far from over.
【NCKU cleaning fuse pending case history 】
seems all starts with the Kirov. his assassination, the truth has so far hardly convincing, but it is a direct cleansing fuse.
Kirov, Soviet Communist Party Central Committee ( No Soviet Politburo Standing Committee), Leningrad Zhouweishuji. his party status is not old, but has a high reputation in the 1930s, he was the Soviet Politburo, the only group of workers would be willing to enter a speech people.
1934 年 1 December night, a young worker named Nikolayev Smolny Palace in the Kirov shot at close range. Nikolayev was arrested for the said , involved in the assassination of Kirov motivation is his emotional entanglements.
Kirov's death the most extensive way, is the direct instigation of Stalin, the rapid rise in popularity because of his threat to Stalin. In fact, the Kirov is Stalin's hand-picked a close political ally, as the Leningrad Zhouweishuji also beat Stalin in 1926, Zinoviev opponents within the party after the rival spheres of influence in the play sand mixed with rock arrangements.
Kirov not a soft touch, cleaning forces Zinoviev, the eradication of rich peasants, a little ambiguity, he completed a 25 million laborers m the Baltic Sea White Sea canal project. The canal was known as the bones and blood of the canal.
Stalin personally responsible for the case handling Ya Geda direction of the Ministry of the Interior: political murder. Yage Da in a very short period of time, thousands of people will be exiled and sentenced to prison, shot some people. Stalin's enemies, has been the downfall of former political Members of the Board Zinoviev, Kamenev has become the accused, was sentenced to imprisonment.
but this is not Stalin wanted. Thus, the new men Kirov case .1 years after a retrial, based Love the case that Stalin finally satisfied with the results, August 19, 1936, Soviet propaganda machine has been mobilized. of the people through education, we learned that those who lose power before the opposition is so dangerous, they murdered the Kirov, they want to murder Stalin, or even the whole Politburo.
masses of the people are organized to participate in a variety of massive political demonstrations, or angrily denounced the criminal elements, or celebrate the destruction of another anti-party clique.
parade and stand just is not enough, the people must know that this will is the field of cruel, life and death struggle to .1937 in February, the Soviet Communist Party plenum issued a Stalin's call: the struggle. base camp entered a stage of mutual expose, then, the Soviet Union all over the large and small around the shocking and criminal conspiracy. However, for the average person, more often, is a black car parked downstairs, they nervously wait for the terrorist knock on the door, and finally pleasantly surprised to find a disappear original neighbors.
official history, the Great Purge is called , there is a vague and ambiguous word was invented: Purges expansion. its meaning is not difficult to understand, revolutionaries are right, but the specific operation, the scope out of control.
【Lenin created the party was destroyed】
Moscow trials a total of 3 times, it is 1937 ~ 1938, the climax of a large repertoire of cleaning the other two is January 23, 1937 hearing of the one trial. position party leaders, the last addition to Stalin, the other 5 mm Trotsky, Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin, Pida Cove, all in three major trials have been executed (child care Lots absentia gene exile abroad, but after the assassination).
addition, led the October Revolution in the 6th Central Committee members, 2 / 3 were executed; 11, 27 Great Central Committee, 20 people were shot; 7 of 15 large Politburo, with the exception of Stalin, the six people were executed or assassinated; 1st 15 members of the Soviet Government, in addition to five people have died, the addition of Stalin were all outside shot 9.
1936-1938 years, the Soviet half of the members of about 120 people were arrested mm. It was concluded, the party created by Lenin, Stalin eliminated.
Stalin period of the old Bolshevik Lenin and cleaning, it is not arrogant before cleaning. As early as 1929 ~ 1931 purge campaign, there were 25 million people were expelled from the party.
purges in the Soviet Communist Party created a kind of terror culture, and party cadres not more than a car pooling, as easily be suspected of conspiracy meetings, they did not dare not have a real personal friendship. In addition to Stalin, they did not dare to invite colleagues to his home for dinner. mm to Stalin is also frightening for dinner, though no one want that position, but As Bulganin said: members, a significant majority are idealists, although they had no experience of managing a country, but is passionate about building an ideal society, they have a plain old sense of justice and the Bolshevik party loyalty.
to 1939, Communist Party members and cadres, 80% were only joined the Soviet Communist Party after the death of Lenin, Stalin, they are modified by the history and variety of promotional items has grown up a generation of education, in their minds, apart from Lenin and Stalin, the early revolutionary leaders almost all are traitors.
shake before the Soviet Communist Party, believe that After the exchange transfusion a qualitative change in the most terrible is that the party's new members who have become accustomed to whistleblowers and expose the culture, accustomed to watching the leadership of cue, used to sell his soul by the way, for the enjoyment of material and power. Stalin's purges completed
absolutely correct historical position of the shape .1938, Stalin's Imperial State historical materials generations.
【they have to do anything described in this year】
1937-1938 cleansing, the current conservative figure is credible, not less than 157 people were sentenced, about 69 million people were executed, about 70 million people were locked up labor camps, in prison, an unknown number died in labor camps.
the Gulag (Administration of reform through labor camps called) the disclosure of the file data indicate that 1940 , the total reserves of 800 million people in the gulag of information, to 1953, is not less than 1,000 people. This means that the Stalin era, about 1,000 people were sent to the gulag.
destroyed Orthodox Church was the last wish of Lenin and Stalin in the early 1930s completed the destruction of the destruction of the Orthodox system, there are still religious forces secretly wriggling. cleansing period, there were 165,000 priests were arrested for preaching, in which 106,000 people were executed.
As a class, rich peasants Although the civil war a few years ago almost been eliminated in the collectivization campaign, but the July 30, 1937 No. KGB released the first 00,447 for the Other anti-Soviet elements of the command, which means that the body is still alive on the rich peasants and their families must be the first Su whole.
order to meet future national war may be a traitor, must be those who do not advance to focus on ethnic cleansing and reliable. The most unreliable Polish, followed by Ukraine, collectivization in the madness of resistance in the Caucasian and Central Asian nation may be the most dangerous of all nationalities.
to more efficiently, targets and tasks assigned to issue more than once. For example, in June 2, 1937, suppression of the Politburo in Moscow asked 35,000 people, 5,000 of them shot.
every Soviet person is alive or dead, are determined by 5,000 people on the list, this time the trial has not yet been formally.
70 years after the Putin visit to offer condolences, training base.
1937 年 8 月 至 1938 年 10 months, Moscow has more than 4 million people were executed, at least 2 million people lost their lives here, most of the day, where 562 people were executed. victims were mainly farmers, workers and the legacy of the old era of hand to bury the bodies, but had to use excavators to bury the bodies.
to commemorate those who died in the purges of innocent people, to commemorate those victims of political persecution in the Soviet era, Solzhenitsyn in his great book Islands, everything. , Qiefu Sharansky is recognized as the most talented marshal generals, but also the real soul of the Red Army. He and other generals made great depth and large-scale mechanized warfare theory theory of operations, who is far ahead of their counterparts in the West. These people were all executed.
图哈切夫斯基 treason long ago the truth. But in 1936 the leaders of the German Security Service 图哈切夫斯基 conspiracy concocted by the case of Heinrich materials, in the end is a German initiative to use discord among, or Stalin's Soviet generals do not intentionally disclose and to give them a chance to create discord among? today there is no definite answer.
old comrades from the different point of view participate in the trial, is the cleansing of the most common situation. participate in the trial图哈切夫斯基 have four marshals, they were Voroshilov, Buqiong Ni, cloth Hull Liu, Ye Ge Luofu.
in the trial of those who signed the book, thinking to stay in Civil War era cavalry survived Voroshilov and Buqiong Ni, cloth Liu Hull, leaves Ge Luofu the same were executed in 1938. cloth Hull after the death of Liu, the official said neither of his arrest, but not announced that he was shot, and the Soviets always thought he was incognito operations in China.
purges wiped out almost the entire Soviet Red Army officer class, the Red Army commanders and political workers have been cleaned more than 4 million people, of which 1.5 million people were executed. cleansing and shot Marshal 3 of 5 people, four-level commanders in the Army-level 3, 12 grade II Army generals all, 67 commander of the 60 people, 199 of the 136 long teacher , 397 Brigade Commander of 221.
Grigore Soviet generals with Branch has commented: ) and have not been such a big loss. or even wiped out the results do not regard the case. is to disarm and surrender of fascist Germany and imperialist Japan, the loss of senior command cadres were also much less than this. the most rare events in history took place in Stalin's time to judge the approaching war.
cleansing serious injury was the Soviet strength in 1939, soon the war between Russia and Finland face disgrace the Soviet Red Army took .90 million 4 months, was forced to yield 300 million population of Finland, the armistice, the Red Army casualties of 50 million people. It directly stimulates the Nazi Germany's military adventures.
following the Great Patriotic War, the Soviet Union almost shed their blood. Before the war, Su Junbing are more than the number of members and the German artillery, combat aircraft is its 5 times 4 times its tank. But the war a year and a half years, the Soviet people for the loss of 1100. the war, the Soviet Union loss of 1 / 7 of the population, only the extinction of the Polish Jews were to achieve this ratio, the price in human lives than all the war except China powers combined.
vast territory without depth, not as high as 40 million reserve manpower could be protection service, great material assistance without allies, it is difficult to imagine the Soviet Union to collapse of Nazi Germany.
, of course, perhaps the most important factor is the victory of the Soviet system itself, only this system, a country in order to maximize all the resources into the war in order to bear the unbearable casualties, to bear the unimaginable suffering. this system, people are consumables and must bear all.
the victory of the Soviet Union to Germany, women and children when there is only one potato to feed their families, able to build the wilderness in the depth of fortifications, the institutional construction of the plant, home of the Germanic women should be devoted to the production system of education, the victory of good offspring.
the real traitors are those who 【】
cleansing today for a defender reason is that it becomes more pure and the Soviet Union, the Soviet Union were of one mind to win the Great Patriotic War.
inadvertently eliminated if cleansing is really a lot of traitors, but it may destroy the traitor made it far More traitor.
Soviet official has been reluctant to face squarely the historical fact is that many people in Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union when the Germans as a savior. This is in many German memoirs visible. but ruthless race of Nazi Germany slavery policy shattered the illusion of these people.
of just , betrayal can only be understood as cleansing and damage to the Soviet Union agricultural policies, which resulted in non-Russian peoples in popularity very serious problem.
Hitler, June 22, 1941 when he launched the invasion of the Soviet Union declared war: lose morale.
judge Hitler was right to some extent. World War II, there is no puppet regime in the case, the enemy of their citizens to join a large-scale operations, only the Soviet Union captured the initiative to ask high-ranking officers from the prisoners of war Organization troops to help the aggressor countries, only the Soviet Union. a high degree of administrative unity of sovereign states happen, rare in the history.
Patriotic War, the Germans have a peak composed of nearly 200 independent Russian battalion combat units, and another 140 in special crush guerrilla combat units at the regiment level in the spring of .1943, the Soviet defector and civilians to volunteer for the German way of service up to 100 people.
Nazi Germany take on Russia's policy of discrimination , non-Russian ethnic composition of the combat forces were allowed to larger combat units, such as the Kalmyk people formed an independent cavalry corps. Ukrainians formed the puppet troops in addition to undertaking maintenance of law and order and guard the camp ...

When you understand that not earlier than the immortal emperor (Rubik's Diary 371)

 When you understand that not earlier than the immortal emperor (Rubik's Diary 371)
2006.07.17 16:26-19:15 Rubik
made a post yesterday, (Rubik's Diary 368) some of the comments, Bo ---- you will suddenly remember that moving, Department has to say but words do not exactly know how the expression of a state of mind?! because very often when the dry mood disorder did not write a word. So I can only use brushes and colors to express the kind you want helpless helpless to change it! anyway we have to cherish all! After all, life is your parents, it must try to face all the optimism!
for the first time I had been her dream died
this message tempt thought when I was 12 mm first thought, eyes as if still in the air looking at the world, but this world has no accept the ; me ignorant of the original understanding of life so I immediately into a off, and looked up at the crowds of people came running mm why do you run it, sense it? I still need to re-live? sooner or later, is dead, I did not have the courage to commit suicide, I have not even afraid of death, how can you have the courage to die then?
confusion of life, consciousness enlightenment as early as elementary school when
my good grades, junior high school language test 100, Mathematics 98 (time is the percentage system), this score is not low, right? However, since the secondary sense to the The teacher said, growing interest, psychological, they will be exploring the world then the originator, had never been seen started reading of psychology; have the opportunity to go to bubble Planetarium; read liang, Ke Yunlu novel; see Shu Ting, Hsi Mu-jung of the poem; Taoism, the Bible, the Koran (when things have not been in contact with Buddhism) hh
I seems premature, and most people in puberty, sexual initiation is earlier than the Enlightenment understanding of the world's life, but I seem to the contrary, I was the first occurrence of life and the world have great doubts about the future of consciousness gradually.
earlier than Qin Shi Huang to understand that in the future can not live forever
N years, , H's what the brain, the body horror.
but as I am more and more profound understanding of Buddhism, this fear less and less frequency of strikes, the other reason is that I am becoming more mature, may have already begun indifferent to accept this reality mm everyone die, but the time and place in different ways.
old emperor to seek immortality of the law to make stupid, we are now young, mean earlier than he can not live forever know When you have more time than he to face this fact and make their lives more worthy of a few decades after the Description of life, it should be so mm culture and art, moral order, methodology and practical experience of the world and all content, our mission is through breeding and teaching future generations so that they Xinjinhuochuan, the so-called re-assessment, adding their own judgments, and to enrich.
earlier than the Emperor can not live forever We know there is still time to survive in this world take control of the day, even now have time to do stupid things amendment, which is a kinds of luck.
people to change their kinetic energy has a well-known lines
mm will be turned into fertilizer, into the air, turned into Five Elements.
I always thought that They forget the extended world , you can not change the outcome, you will not think about death, or you die by the exploration and understand, the change your fear of death and understanding.
If you can not escape the dead end, you will simply take mm decades of living to the security of both the obvious mm can not be eternal life, but also obvious is not to die, it would make sense a person, that person, then, is the world's Office personnel mm even if the dust, but also try to make a Good dust.
not what I
vast night sky when you look up, you can find your own insignificance; when you use the existence of 64 million years the Earth divided by your 64 years of life on Earth, you can found you on behalf of only one hundred million into the 1 / 60 billion (6.0 billion population of the Earth). However, that small is not enough, it must meet > You can think you are your father three hundred million sperm into one, and your mother is surviving the egg into a fertilized egg, you are absorbed through the umbilical cord from the cucumber, milk, nutrition becomes increasingly long Shui Jianbao Big into a ball of human flesh, regeneration down; you human milk, cereal, eggs, pancakes, fish-flavored pork into thick keep arms, legs, constantly busts, and ass, you said that a bunch of things which are ; you? I It is this interpretation.
however, is how many people do not understand this principle, such as love, one wants to end, the other would not life and death, and what you? which is not yours! few years, even you did not, you talk about what to have?
Chulai Hun, always have to repay the now popular phrase
mm to repay, : the suspect turned himself in and forced out crime, punishment is not the same, you take the initiative to go further and to the end of life may be forced to hand over all of you is not the same.
; Everyone knows that, mind will be transformed into the will, and drive people to do various tasks in the material world.
modern technology actually is a TV on the open, the screen came, you see; This is called science, the future development is a want to watch TV, what do not press, television, opened, this is not the spirit into matter through mediation One of the ways.
ultimately say is, you have to understand that When restitution, which is the essence of life.
borrowed has also, to borrow is not difficult to
ancestors were great lessons for us all day and the words by easy , your physical body and others, are themselves eggplant, potato, tomato combination, speaking from the same source, although the manufacturing and manufacturing of your eggs not the same as his sperm, but do not forget that ; sperm and eggs are also eggplant, potatoes, tomatoes into the mix, in this sense, that is, the phrase .
Having said that, someone will ask, their talent to make the best use words to make its meaning
to play; ; word meaning ; with this life to fulfill your responsibilities in this world, to enforce your rights, to fulfill your obligations. with the laws of nature, the universe and the origin of the world, will enlighten your mind, you control the quality (not temperament) will change, your learning, life, cause it will somehow mm smooth as you have already mastered the survival and development tips.
7   18 mm
flow of the article is a ass, Shui Yebie install X (Rubik's Diary 372)
when you can not understand earlier than the immortal emperor (Rubik's Diary 371) 

Yiwu, about how much flow

 Yiwu Jinhua
crowd about how much painless price? Jinhua do painless cost about 400-1000 yuan in the range, because of physical factors. Above cost without gynecological inflammation and, if the gynecological inflammation abortions before the need to control and treatment-related, postoperative physical and conditioner is also given according to individual, physical well be some anti-inflammatory equipped only if the physical difference, you may need anti-inflammatory treatment. Jinhua Tongji Hospital Online Consultation
painless, which has several [types of current flow more and more painless, so painless, which has several do? For now, the most widely used abortions are painless, ultra- guide painless visual flow, superconducting visual (minimally invasive) painless and so on. This article will detail experts to answer painless for you, which has several]
As technology advances abortions also occurred a qualitative change, the current launch of the various hospitals Painless Abortion different, then there are several painless surgery? in the end kind of painless surgery is the best? Ms. many friends because of unwanted pregnancies to give up their birth, they usually choose to do painless surgery, so painless procedure which is divided into several it? painless are now 4 types: painless, painless visual flow superconductivity, superconducting minimally invasive non-visual pain flow, painless visual flow of microtubules.
painless abortion: safe painless, rapid recovery, without sequelae, termination of pregnancy before 6 weeks earlier. applies to early pregnancy, no birth or early pregnancy in young women reacted strongly to the President needed termination of pregnancy.
superconducting painless visual flow: with advanced B-, the painless technique to the limit, in the Melaleuca operating room to complete. positioning accuracy, no discomfort, completely avoid postoperative infection.
painless visual flow of microtubules: the texture is soft with a micro-tube under the guidance of the high-tech mirrors, MD with pinhole in the and easy way to arrive in pregnancy sac tubulin, without expanding the case of cervix, to suck out the body of the gestational sac.
Yiwu crowd about how much
, painless How much? price is also President accident pregnancy concern, advise Ms. Jinhua Tongji gynecologist friend, although considering the price range, but safety is the first painless. low prices may not be good. Jinhua online consultation
Tongji Hospital, which of painless [in the present more and more types of artificial abortion, then abortion, which has several painless it? For now, the most widely used abortions are painless, painless visual flow superconductivity, superconducting visual (minimally invasive) painless and so on. This article asked the experts to answer your detailed painless, which has several]
As technology advances in abortions is also a qualitative change taking place, the current introduction of the various hospitals painless abortions are different, then there are several painless surgery? in the end kind of painless surgery is the best? Ms. many friends because of unwanted pregnancies to give up their birth, they usually choose to do painless surgery, What then is divided into several painless surgery it? painless are now 4 types: painless, painless visual flow superconductivity, superconducting painless minimally invasive flow visualization, microtubule painless visual flow.
painless abortion: safe painless, rapid recovery, without sequelae, termination of pregnancy before 6 weeks earlier. applies to early pregnancy, young women without birth or early pregnancy termination of pregnancy need strong reaction from the ladies. < br> superconducting painless visual flow: with advanced B-, the painless technique to the limit, in the Melaleuca operating room to complete. positioning accuracy, no discomfort, completely avoid postoperative infection.
painless visual flow of microtubules: the texture is soft with a micro-tube under the guidance of the high-tech mirrors, MD with pinhole in the , without expansion in the case of cervix, gestational sac to suck out the body.
termination of unwanted pregnancies, abortions the right choice and guide is the key. Jinhua Tongji Hospital, experts pointed out that with the development of medical technology, various surgical termination of pregnancy after another, make the lady friend dazzling, termination of early pregnancy is not a problem already, but how to choose a safe method of injury and minor surgery is not an easy task. 

Evidence of Chinese Accounting Development

 Evidence of Chinese Accounting Development
[Abstract] This paper briefly reviews the empirical accounting of the development process. In clarifying a number of conceptual problems, discuss the positive impact of the accounting development in China a significant factor. Include: relevant disciplines development, information processing and database business, the traditional theory of the crisis, capital market development, drawing on international practice. The third part presents a complete system of graduate education, teacher evaluation system and scientific titles reward system and so on. fourth part Positive Accounting own use of technology and the use of background issues, analysis of how to promote the further development of empirical accounting.
in the late eighties, the Chinese accounting profession began to introduce evidence introduced accounting .1994 popular abroad, since the real use of empirical method of accounting research papers appear in the major academic journals. At the same time, people will be positive accounting and standardize the accounting for a multi-angle comparison, the main purpose of this Introduction. until 1997 years ago, the number of positive accounting papers is very limited, the study also focused on areas of the efficient market hypothesis since the test �� .1997, positive accounting in China has made substantial development. research greatly expand ��, published in academic journals greatly increased the proportion of empirical papers. Therefore, the development of positive accounting sector in 1997 can be divided into two stages. This division is based are: At best, the 1997 party Congress, on the economic life had a major impact; in speaking, the development of China's securities market is divided into stages of this standard, while the positive development of accounting and the close relationship between development of securities markets; small speaking, Accounting Research, To standardize the accounting research evidence, but also help improve the system of accounting theory, it helps to strengthen international academic exchanges. Basically, you can better serve China's reform and opening up services. the core of this paper is to answer how to promote our preliminary evidence Accounting for further development. For this reason, discussion of the development of a number of factors of Positive Accounting, the current restrictions on the development of Positive Accounting System, and the empirical use of technology and the use of accounting background.
a need to clarify a few conceptual problems
as the main representative of Positive Accounting, Watts and Zimmerman (Watts and Zimmerman) will be positive accounting known as the Zimmerman, 1986). Ge Professor Shu, phenomena and predict accounting practice of accounting is to regulate the accounting of symmetry. If it is a theory, should have their own views and comparing the core research areas (like accounting objective theory, theory of accounting measurement, revenue realization theory, etc.). Obviously, if it determines the positive accounting limited to study capital market research, accounting, research and other limited areas selected, only limited evidence of accounting development. to Watts and Zimmerman's famous a theory. This is mainly due to the seventies and eighties, empirical study of accounting and conclusions substantially different from the past, but also relatively concentrated. In fact, the different methods used to establish a new theory can also be used to reflect the old theory. Now a lot of empirical accounting topics can use the standardized approach to the study, there are many normative thesis can be used to study the empirical method. Thus, the empirical method of accounting is a kind of empirical research conducted by the theory. Positive Accounting and standardize the accounting of the fundamental difference is that the proposition put forward by the researchers can study the use of empirical methods, namely, whether the study can be large enough random sample of observations. In the past not the future may be able to evidence, the use of Positive Accounting is not confined to existing areas.
is a clear empirical accounting research methods, did not reduce their status, on the contrary will be conducive to its development. in some system of accounting theory monograph entitled, positive accounting theory not as a research method to prove the point, and was listed as tied with the other part of accounting theory (and often the last part.) graduate teaching in the same problems also exist. This is of course the degree of development and Positive Accounting Theory Accounting mm had not been covered For most areas, but, if accepted accounting is an empirical research method, it should be in the details to be discussed before the study commenced. of well-known accounting experts and PhD supervisor Professor Wu Shuipeng in its in the constructed system of accounting theory is the highest level of Methodology. clearly is a kind of empirical accounting research methods, but also helps to understand why the evidence in China's development of accounting and capital market development would have such a close relationship. The key The latter proposition is that accounting can be determined empirically.
2. Positive Accounting (Positive Accounting) and experience in accounting (Empirical Accounting) What is the relationship?
narrow a view that can be used as evidence of accounting experience in accounting a branch (Cheung and Xu Zongyu, 1997; Chun Cai and Zou Hong, 1999). The second point of view, 1968 by Powell and Brown (Ball & Brown)-sponsored study called the Empirical Accounting, but in 1978 Watts and Qi Mo Erman launched called Positive Accounting, the two together, the empirical accounting (Liu Feng, 2000). Accordingly, the empirical experience in accounting than accounting. distinguish between the two is intended to give the empirical (experience) will be planned in phases. We that the Hypothesis Testing?
accounting from the empirical results of the current domestic point of view, the methods used by the vast majority of hypothesis testing. But that is not the only way of accounting evidence. First, statistical hypothesis testing is the main inference methods, and descriptive statistics can also be used for positive accounting. Second, the empirical data sources accounting for the financial reports of listed companies, it can be other. such as questionnaires, simulation experiments, direct observation. Fundamentally, Positive Accounting characterized by the observed facts as the argument based on experience, but it does not mean that mathematical tools Domination CD.
Second, the development of empirical factors accounting
many scholars have the possibility of the development of Positive Accounting and the necessity too general. These discussions and more development-oriented foreign Positive Accounting. described below will focus on the reality of our country.
1.
the development of related disciplines in the theoretical basis, by the early development of Positive Accounting Efficient Market Hypothesis (EMH) and the capital asset pricing model (CAPM) of. since the eighties are empirical accounting and business theory, contract theory, control theory and so close. In addition, the calculation method, the development of mathematical statistics much earlier in empirical accounting, but also earlier than the positive economic theory. This suggests that we are engaged in empirical accounting research must first understand the relevant disciplines. If you are not satisfied with the related disciplines have higher attainments, and even a breakthrough.
accounting theory and economic theory will be compared to a phenomenon can be found. in China and the United States, accounting theory, the rise of empirical wind too late in the economic theory. by simple statistics we can see, China's significantly more than the past, the main reason is that these papers use an empirical analysis. Positive Accounting subordinate to the possibility of escape, following in the shadow of other disciplines? (eg, for the efficient market hypothesis testing, in economic circles, the financial circles there are people as well as management of the academic research. Although not the topic of the subject property caused by the war, but easy to repeat such a study is not conducive to the development of accounting.) In other words, the existence of accounting theory-based empirical accounting? these questions worth thinking . Current management accounting theory on the interest earnings may be relevant. urgent research topic of accounting academics should be more of a problem of the discipline. If, on the profit forecast, accounting standards and other issues of financial reporting.
2. information processing and database business development
both of which are closely related with the computer, can be classified as a class. information processing technology mainly refers to the collation of raw data processing, especially in the calculation of complex . Domestic commonly used software TSP, Excel, SPSS and so on. a variety of software advantages and disadvantages. TSP is a small DOS-based software, a bit old; Excel is one of the most popular office software, easy to find; SPSS powerful highly specialized.
database of business is to provide the necessary raw data. I can see from the empirical results, the majority of researchers is to collect raw data on the securities newspaper, imagine the workload of large, high cost. privileged few researchers have begun to use electronic version of the data, described as specializing in information services, have Compustat Tape and Datastream International, as detailed data for research purposes, I believe we can promote the development of accounting evidence.
The SFC has recently released the , disclosure of the annual report or website, but no earlier than the specified time disclosure web site. This requirement for data collection, research staff will have a significant impact. In addition, the site often publish preliminary order on the stock market and listed company data, Empirical accounting researchers should be concerned about.
3.
according to traditional theory, the crisis of the revolutionary theory of Kuhn's scientific paradigms, new theoretical paradigm is in crisis after the old paradigm was born. The so-called theory of crisis, is the theory supply and demand balance, especially in short supply, including the total amount of shortage and structural shortages. before and after the sixties, the U.S. standard accounting theory in guiding the formulation of accounting standards on a crisis, so with the Ball and Brown (1968), Beaver ( 1970) pioneering empirical research. of the existence of accounting theory crisis? to face the dual task of development and institutional transformation of China's economy is undoubtedly on the theory of the demand is huge. In theory the supply side, if only from the number of published papers speaking, the prosperity of accounting theory repeat itself. However, the bubble in which too many. From the formal point of view, including the duplication of research, copy, Manuscript and so on. from the contents, there are entangled in the concepts, principles and the real significance The foam, is not the subject of this lie. But through this phenomenon, we can see the existence theory of crisis, at least potentially. In recent years, we can hear from time to time lags in the reform of accounting theory criticism is also an evidence of the crisis theory. We I believe, an early crush of academic bubble, the crisis will become clear theory, will be conducive to real progress in academic.
according to economic theory, some people change because of anticipated benefits to the system, the burden may be greater than its cost, may initiate changes to become the first institutional change Action Group (Primary Action Group). paradigm change of accounting theory is the founder of Shanghai University of Finance, Xiamen University, Tsinghua University and other colleges and universities several accounting researchers. their higher academic gains mm position is very clear. a group of visionary researchers are trying to become the second Action Group (Secondary Action Group).
4.
foreign capital markets, capital market development long before the development of positive accounting. And of two almost simultaneous development. The reason is that capital market is a necessary condition for evidence of accounting development, but not sufficient condition. If the necessary conditions for the formation of foreign countries is the latest computer technology, while China is the capital market.
empirical relationship between accounting and capital markets can be summarized as: the accounting norms need for capital market guidance of accounting theory, capital market development but also create the conditions for empirical accounting research (Cheung and Xu Zongyu, 1997). first hand, A typical example is the study of accounting, Direct contact with staff and practitioners have few opportunities, and can be found on a variety of statistical yearbook is mostly macro data. Therefore, the capital market on the public disclosure of information for the development of accounting theory quite prominent influence than abroad is quite different.
5. learning from international practice
the late eighties, the rise of the Chinese accounting profession a In recent years, with the increase of foreign exchange accounting academic, research paradigm shift gradually the recognition of Chinese accounting theory. The main manifestations are: (1) some theories outside the elite to the results published in academic journals, popular abroad, have applied The empirical research paradigm mm; (2) as the authority of the Journal of Accounting, Accounting Society of China's 3) Symposium on the number of international, foreign scholars, the fruits of true multi-license of, for us to further open the horizon. (4) of Hong Kong by the mainland part of the accounting academics have theoretical training in the traditional norms and Western style empirical theory of influence, they had raised the mainland's accounting theory criticism. This criticism is very convincing. At the same time it should be noted, foreign exchange, after all, limited to a few people from international practices to promote not enough to make positive accounting popularity spread in theoretical circles.
above, are engaged in empirical accounting research has basically met the necessary conditions. If there is enough power and the right approach, researchers can study in depth understanding of the relevant disciplines and computer application technology, worked tirelessly to collect data necessary for the specification of capital markets, in the empirical accounting research. However, the problem is, things just need to have the necessary conditions for development.
Third, to promote the positive accounting development: improvement of the system
Positive Accounting in China, how to promote the further development? Dr. Lu Zhengfei that led to our financial (and accounting) basically limited to the normative study of the main reasons, first, the lack of power, the second is the lack of study conditions. research is the reality of power theory of demand and profit-driven researchers. of conditions, including empirical methods to master the required researchers and research data (Lu Zhengfei, 2000). In my opinion, to promote the positive development of the specific factors accounting can be divided into two aspects. a the external environment as the system exists, it solves the problem is to study the cultivation of the main body, or has anyone willing to engage in empirical research; Second Positive Accounting own use of technology problem, you can proceed with an analysis from the existing limitations, it addresses is willing to engage in empirical accounting research in the study were able to correctly.
relative to the cost of empirical accounting research is far higher than the norm, while the income gap has no clear, rational cost-benefit analysis for researchers, of course, will choose not to engage in empirical research ��. Thus, to promote the development of positive accounting, we must start from the institutional arrangements, in particular, is to improve the incentive mechanism to reduce the burden of researchers engaged in empirical research costs and increase revenue empirical research. < br> 1.
graduate education system in China, if the positive accounting mainly thanks to the early development of the theory of elite doctoral represented, then, is committed to its further development should be a higher penetration rate, which depends on, including Master Graduate students, including the System.
first elective system of postgraduate tutors. PhD before they apply, often the first to have contact with the instructors, many colleges and universities, graduate students mentor is also used in the manner specified . Even if some students want to understand empirical accounting, it may Toushi nowhere and look Master Instructor with qualifications as long as it is no longer in-depth academic research, the academic qualifications as a teacher with the assumption that the words reflect the level of research. This is clearly not reasonable. patchwork of thousands of words not as good as a million words sense. from research costs, the latter may be higher than the former. Positive Accounting Topics usually small, may not be able to empirical research,
2. teacher evaluation system and scientific titles
reward system both of which are concerned with the paper quality assessment system. university teachers is the most important theoretical researchers. the power of teachers engaged in scientific research (teachers are rational economic man) mainly professional title and research awards. At present, evaluation and research awards titles based primarily on the number of papers, considering the quality of the paper is limited to words, the publication level. Since the cost of research in empirical accounting research than specification, unless the awareness There is no such practice. from the accounting profession, China Accounting Society should take up responsibility. in the subject report, research awards, etc., should be gradually tilted to the empirical study.
3.
current exchange system College Teachers, Many university teachers from the school's doctoral training, it is difficult to avoid the advanced Western experience. For example, a doctoral student graduation, a number of years allowed in the school engaged in teaching and research; to a certain percentage of posts reserved for visiting scholars from around the world and the other PhD students (Cheung, and Xuzong Yu, 1997) .
4. empirical accounting research cooperative system
high cost of research, cooperation can play a research process and improve the quality of scientific research; can be academic, ; topic. Therefore, we should vigorously promote cooperation in scientific research.
5.
editing system of publication, some publications do not understand the positive accounting editorial staff, it will shut the door empirical results. Some publications in the Instructions for Authors stressed, can not be represented graphically as in words. This is clearly not conducive to empirical results published illustrations. In addition to changing the perception about the Journal, an anonymous reviewer system should be implemented.
accounting thesis now published our first garden The University, the second is the provinces (municipalities and autonomous regions) attached to the branch of the financial sector, run by Accounting Association publications and the third is organized by relevant research publications. Generally speaking, the existence of market (readers) to locate the tendency is not clear. its too pay attention to what did not take into account the results Guzhe, as readers specifically for a particular service. For example, the universal service in practical, research-based service in the academic community.
6.
system of production and research links Title review, project reporting, award of achievements, research activities for remuneration are the benefits. These benefits are mostly indirect and uncertain. but what happens when research costs are direct, realistic, and often up to the Researchers should be responsible. The reason is very popular abroad, positive accounting, data collection and low cost is certainly one of the reasons is also remuneration huge part of the reason, but perhaps more importantly, most of their research costs onto the practitioners mm funded by the company , Research issues of concern. If, on an accounting standards in favor of or negative attitude held company hopes to obtain a theoretical The disadvantages may be prejudiced, but if the participating companies and researchers enough, you can reach some sort of balance. Therefore, the theory should be encouraged to link researchers and practitioners together to promote the positive development of accounting.
four to promote the positive accounting development: improvement of the existing limitations
1997 years after the rapid development of Positive Accounting. However, careful study, can still be found there are some technical problems, especially in research with Chinese characteristics and focus on the background is not enough. < br> 1. From the structure of the paper form, to be further standardized. For example, empirical studies abroad, often in the verification of the outstanding advantages. for other researchers to facilitate the validation, the performance of both the academic rigor, but also cost savings reviewers, saving the cost of further study. In our country, I am afraid that no one has really proven the existing empirical results because it requires time and effort to re-collect data. In fact, the existing data, calculated on the basis of application of computer software validation is not very complicated. Therefore, the increase of the degree of openness rather than geese are swans, will be conducive to positive accounting development. In another example, Some empirical results at the end the lack of guidelines for further research, but also to be improved.
2. in the use of empirical methods in all areas, our scholars are still not enough skill to master the problem. Some empirical studies confirm that the cold clothes to Tim, case conditions are not sufficient to establish model, derived conclusions; Even worse, some of the low-level survey also grandly known as the conducted a survey (Zhaode Wu, 2000). these problems, the reasons for opportunism and utilitarianism of the system should be improved by the above to solve, and technical issues will need to further improve our understanding of the empirical method of accounting.
3. In the background on the prevalence of positive accounting of the problem of insufficient concern with Chinese characteristics. reflected in the sample collection, research topics, the assumption, the conclusion of and so on. If the first two addressed the ;, the problem with Chinese characteristics, belong to a deeper level, discussed before, the development of the necessary conditions of Positive Accounting, the final form of the capital market, the greatest influence may also be capital market. At present, there are still a lot of Chinese capital market is not mature enough, and standardized factor, accounting research will inevitably adverse effects. give it to those who have: (1) restricted circulation of state-owned shares. China A share market, share of state shares and legal person shares more than 70% market share. Although the state-owned shares can be negotiated transfer, but the sale price far below market . (2) listing eligibility to take examination and approval system, not the registration system, with options also under tight control. Hence, the competing interests with the region and distribution of results, and is difficult to reflect the industrial policy, resource allocation function to play. (3) domestic stock market is divided into A shares, B shares, along with H shares listed overseas, S shares, N shares and so on. also be issued shares of the companies failed to achieve a variety of the same shares of the same rights. (4) located in the capital market finance function, while the governance structure of listed companies did not change (Lin Yi-phase, 1999). (5) lack of capital market withdrawal mechanism. Joan source Ye Hao, Zhengbaiwen both mean China's stock market and Out of the typical.
above characteristics is the empirical impact of accounting: (1) taking into account the state-owned shares in circulation, market segmentation and other issues, the market actually a smaller scale. This makes the sample space is limited empirical research, the results of the representative weakened, abandoned true error and increase the possibility of taking false error. More specifically, the hypothesis testing in a value increase. ( 2) taking into account market approval system, exits, company restructuring and other issues, China's listed companies financial reporting credibility is questionable. to the conclusion based on evidence obtained may also be hard to believe. On the other hand , earnings management, IPO (Initial Public Offerings) behavior become a hot research topic, that is very natural. (3) of the Chinese stock market is less certain special problems abroad, has not yet attracted sufficient attention. For example, state-owned shares and the public shares between the shareholders of behavior, the operator issues related to non-monetary compensation, corporate governance structure and the quantity and quality of accounting information disclosure, the employee stock ownership and corporate performance, the effectiveness of outside directors and so on supervisors.
In addition, China's capital market there is a short history, rapid development, and other characteristics, which makes empirical research is limited in time series analysis, and cross-sectional analysis was more appropriate; also made a number of topics in different periods can be used the same method of data analysis.
Conclusion < br> This will be the development of empirical accounting is divided into two phases. in clarifying a number of conceptual problems, discuss the positive impact of the accounting development in China a significant factor. The third and fourth parts of the system were perfect and from Positive Accounting own use of technology and the use of background to the two aspects of how to promote the further development of empirical accounting. In some places, the author may be more extreme terms, and if so, is simply out of a good wish.
Note:
�� can be found in:
Yu Qiao. market efficiency, price effects and cyclical fluctuations. Economic Research. 9 1994
Wu Shinong. Shanghai stock market efficiency analysis and evaluation. investment research.
1994 8 Wu Shinong. Efficiency of China's securities market. Economic Research. 1996 4
Deng Xuewen. how China's stock market maturity mm from the side by price efficiency an empirical study. Shanghai Securities News. May 7, 1995
Songsong Xing, Jin Wei roots. Shanghai Empirical Study of the effectiveness of the stock market. Economists. 4 1995
soup cloud, Gu Shu. accounting information in the Shanghai stock market An Empirical Study. Chinese accounting professor
1995 Annual Meeting Proceedings Shen Yi-feng. accounting information and stock market semi-strong form of the effectiveness of the empirical analysis. accounting.
1996 a high-hung frame. On efficiency of the Shanghai stock market. Xiamen University. 1996 4
Chao-jun. Shanghai stock market price behavior of empirical research. contained in the and so on. Weak Chinese Stock Market Efficiency Analysis. Accounting. 9 1997
Wushi Nong, Huang power. information of listed companies report earnings, the stock market price changes and the efficiency of empirical research. Accounting .1997 4 �� 1997 years of Chinese empirical accounting mainly related to the following areas:
 functional lock or overreaction
Shen Yi-feng, Wu Shinong. China's securities market over-reaction of it? Economic Research. 1999 2 < br> Zhang Ji, Zhu square, Wang Huaifang. Shanghai stock market over-reaction of the empirical test. Economic Research. 1998 No. 5
Zhao Yulong, Wang Taiwan. China's securities market 1999 9  earnings management or earnings manipulation
Chen Xiaoyue, Xiao Xing, over Xiaoyan. with equity and profits of listed companies manipulated. Economic Research. 2000 1
land bridge. China loss Study on Earnings Management of Listed Companies. Accounting. 9 1999
Jiang Yihong. profits of listed companies controlled by empirical research. China Securities Journal. March 1998 19-20  asset restructuring
the original red flag. Analysis reorganization of listed companies. economic management.
1998 3 Chen Hsin-yuan, Zhang Tian Yu. m1997 market reaction to the reorganization of assets reorganization of assets in Shanghai Stock Market Analysis. Economic Research. 1999 No. 9 & # 61548; system risk
Shen Yi-feng. Shanghai Stock Exchange listed stocks and stability of beta coefficients estimated test. contained in the Empirical Research. Economic Research. 1996 10
Wushi Nong, Wei Shaoyong. China's Shanghai stock market investment portfolio size and risk of Empirical Study. Economic Research. 1998 4
Wushi Nong, Chen Bin. risk measurement methods and the theory of financial asset allocation models and empirical research. Economic Research. 9 1999
Wu Shinong and so on. Our systematic risk of listed companies and accounting empirical research the relationship between variables. Accounting. 1999 12 < br> Chenlang Nan, Qu Wenzhou. the capital asset pricing model and empirical study. Economic Research ....

Home template code all transparent

 In fact, a large face in my blog template is already in this article describes in detail the methods to change the template, but still have many friends who do not understand, because after all, not learn this, look at the code first to faint, and now just have the time, I'll get hold of the most simple, can be used directly add, I hope that we Nengkanmingbai!
Note: In fact, there are all the ills of transparent, often resulting in your blog does not open, or open very slow! background using bad words, articles not clear fonts, and more! Sina's template is very good! I changed because I wanted to call you to see results, definitely not be cool! it can not change or do not change as much as possible, after all, blog Text is the most important!
For best results, the best replacement system template gray track.
Home Full transparency code:


use:  1, the contents of the control panel maintenance ---- ---- Home ---- New definition of a blank template, create a module title, click
display the source code -
---- Save and paste the code return;
2, Control Panel, customize my home page ---- ---- ---- Point Click Add Module to create a good hook on the module title --- and save, move the new panel position - Save settings. The purpose of doing the second step is to establish a good personal home page in the blog module presented.
opaque if you want to call a certain part, please refer to: replace the blog page of each part of the picture code to delete a section of code on it !
want to change the background of the words with any of the following three code to use!
a fixed background image code:

background transparent code: Plus it is not the color of the background, that is white!
background or if you use a fixed background scrolling code to find a favorite wallpaper pictures, upload to your blog, upload pictures upload unlimited method reference image address method to get the pictures to the address on the cover!
instructions:
If you want to change the background to use more than three kinds of ways to change the background image, the same steps and add a transparent code!
want to change the page width, size of blog title, or do not understand, please refer to:
Home panel widened, BLOG headline size, and fonts.
replacement parts picture blog page code
method
unlimited upload pictures to add special effects on the details 

Water Village Tongli (c)

 Dawn, I was awakened by the sound of a minor, rustle, repetitious repetitious, or sparse or dense, sequential sky, What kind of sound? Breath to listen, is still around is so quiet, if not from the window Xi through into the morning, I was sleeping that night, that it is heard it wrong. But, obviously I have heard a mild voice, by its traction, light from the window toes chlamydia, With the shaft of wood windows crunchy sweet sound of the voice of that slight, it suddenly became real, the original tree was drizzling kiss, dissolve brick gravel voice.
This is the voice of the morning This is the autumn rain in the morning with the sound. open a window grabbing, it turns into a day the sound of music, through the hard skull, in my thoughts freeze, and quickly spread throughout the body like an electric shock hh
In the deep of the breathing, I like a leaf, a trace of rain, and in the morning with a thorough integration of the hh
At this time, there has been a twice shaft crunchy sound. is the window of my sound, it woke up the rivers and lakes sister! Perhaps, this morning, the first pair of push open the window should be the real estate broker, then the fair face of a Zhang Qingxiu to brighten with the years. Even though I is not thick fingers pinching the pen However, compared with the real estate broker is a vertical mile, not to mention eyebrows of the cloud itself, there is no handsome at all, but to the window the sound reckless, not to the same noise in the flavor of gruel.
a fan When the window opens, as is the opening prologue of life, a King King staged drama began right again. is still a gentle words, quiet alley, slowly flowing water, leisurely boat, lazy men and women , winding brick gravel hh day after day, year after year. live in rivers and lakes, you can always have doubts, whether the time to enter the modern?
greeted the landlord, we will dropped into the eager embrace of the morning, do not turn his face, do not stand high, it will feel warm and wet from the kiss in all directions, stretching under the tongue, lips along the touch, sweet rain, just as Eight drink Like porridge, you refreshing!
this flickering, wandering freely in the rain, the water is then slowly wizard now! in the shadow of our stay in the heart of the city opened the warm warm embrace of our mind, in order to express the people's hospitality and pure rivers and lakes to the real emotions!

Using credit card finance (some experience)

 Credit card payment is nowadays an indispensable tool for consumer credit function because of its convenience, they often make unconsciously overruns, the more debt the more important card. In fact, mirror the difficulties liabilities caused entirely their own, Little do they know proper use of credit cards is a good financial tool for it, I used the card for many years, slowly summarize some card ideas and share with you.
a guide rational consumption
Since it is credit cards, of course, is the largest consumer use, keep a good sign of consumption per share documents with the bank statement reconciliation, when checked individually, case by case analysis, every time I reconcile personal consumption is a major check on the will know that they have a complete account number of irrational consumer behavior, which the consumer, which can postpone consumption, consumption of which should never do know the answer immediately, and slowly becomes easy to control shopping. Money in addition to open Learn to throttle the source.
Second, clever use of interest-free period has earned an interest-free credit spreads
period, that is, to encourage banks to provide the consumer to defer payment of benefits, since it is matter of course to their advantage to full use. My approach is to talk to the bank entered into a repayment account in full, daily consumption on the use of credit cards, if there are two or more hands of the credit card, the card can use different the balance sheet date to lengthen the repayment time. in vain with the bank's money to buy things they need, but their money is interest-free period can be created for their own investment income, demand at least can make some interest on it for their own, You might say that time is not long to have much income, do not forget the phrase section of the agreement, expires automatically deduct payments, so banks do not earn from my hand overdraft interest.
Third, establish a good personal credit
larger banks in the payment of the loan amount (for example: mortgage, car loan, etc.) the first consideration is the customer's credit status, repayment ability, I said in front of their card and repayment of the set, so my bank's credit record has been good, and good Record not only to bring their own higher credit limit, and in the approval personal loans no credit history than those who enjoy good benefits and relatively simple procedures.
four, integral number of records and harvest
are by credit card spending to total points, each spending a dollar to score a point, at any time through the integration can help to understand and adjust their daily expenses, beginning of each year can also use points for prizes with the bank, the kinds of things that a lot of it, Some small things is not only sophisticated but also practical. Now banks in order to encourage and retain cardholders with good credit issued from time to time there will be coupons, I have sent two consecutive years, received free beauty on bank cards, Starbucks Kafei Quan, movies what votes.
five, the use of joint card
many banks to strengthen ties with the business, often co-branded cards will be introduced, in addition to the benefits of these cards I listed above, there is a greater benefit is that shopping can be discounted, this is different from the business daily discount promotions, the nature of co-branded cards with the consistent nature of membership card.

Young nice (continued)

 I usually do not report it on this computer, the reason is probably healthy disk (or not convinced, and find reasons)
W good hands!
Started
facts are always ready
facts, though sometimes felt unreal, and sometimes feel helpless, a time to start, I head turned gray, I always hope that when I stealth, you can on the line, even if it flashing at you head, but also have been met. I became
T ratio, and me and who I can not in fact always
W is true, though sometimes feels unreal, and sometimes feel helpless, a time to start, I head turned gray, I always hope, in my stealth, you can on the line, even if it flashing at you head, have been met, I was (again a master)
fact is always true, even though sometimes feel unreal, and sometimes feel helpless, a time to start, I head turned gray, I always hope that, in my stealth, you can be on the line, even if it flashing at you head, have been met, I become.
T you're not playing my copy right now (before to you, you do not know, now too fast, do not believe a)
copy faster than you think I'm stupid ah
W gardening point of less.
how to fight back? (allows you to be convinced)
issued a word on it
T I do not believe the speed that you have my fast (or do not believe ah)
everyone ratio (the number of constraints)
W fast speed I have a degree of phase are not you believe me (show started)
T may not copy (rest assured, there will be false)
W ratio from a large (to show)
system recovery in time to ((the show)
this does not believe it (You're dead, how not convinced?)
down to play, smart
Nengzhi down, (performance)
T too fast do not believe (actually too fast)
W since no master volume ....( laughs)
Oh
T I count pretty fast friends (Yes, ah, you up there?)
W letter as not, the fast too. (performance)
T Oh, I admit defeat (finally convinced a)
W Rights
on me pretty fast transmission service, me., oh (continued performance)
Smart still my apprentice! (leather play)
T you are doing the work of the Central Intelligence Agency (Oh, fast typing Intelligence Agency to do?)
W is the (playing erupted)
Oh
T I'm not smart, I do not play alphabet, and I hit a stroke (it wrong, intelligence is a master name)
W know how much a minute of the main group it? really, come here to challenge .. halo (another master point you click)
T do not know what to say (really do not know ah, to be honest)
W gardening is our fingertips Chiang Wang Xiao, Principal. ha ha ((down leather flicker bar)
T lied to me again (it does, a little phrase right, but not another)
W Intelligent ABC input method, here is my teacher (flicker, then flicker)
I went to take a nap in the afternoon to see more. (met Lengtou Qing, master dull, left)
Oh
T to you every day that I learned (somewhat believe)
Yeah I go to work I am not a qualified secretary
it (know your weaknesses a)
W I have not shot it! (keep suppressing)
Oh
there are all our part-time ( tell you something really)
T affect my nails too long to play you know the speed (ex??? have to find a cause??)
W know, repair erupted (give you a chance)
T really listen (presumably very) do not like to look good hand (a dilemma, ah, find a reason to lose)
just well on the exam just to stay long Oh please I'm free to go to nail
So typing beat the

W Do not you find a reason Well! (direct point out sharply)
T is the ah you look at my nails (indeed some truth ah)
good
too long to break the bad
W you play two characters, casually playing with your famous!
look at an interval of many!
T I said, definitely better than your playing What did
playing fast haha ah
such a question would have to call the
W network is illusory, always been looked down on people obsessed with the network, in fact, are just not the Internet before. the Internet after himself become part of them, involuntary to indulge them. always thought he was an expert outside world, you can Swordsman, but in fact nothing but a poor drug addict is back monopoly Wandering Road.
Network Indeed the temptation too much, there are treasures,
network is illusory, always been looked down on obsessed with the network, not only in the fact that before the Internet. the Internet after I had become a part of them, not help to indulge them. always thought he was an expert outside world, you can Swordsman, but in fact nothing but a poor drug addict is back monopoly Wandering Road. the temptation to do too much with the network treasures
T network is illusory, have always been obsessed with the network of people look down on, in fact, are just not the Internet before. the Internet after the talks themselves became a part of it, could not help indulge them. always thought he was an expert outside world, you can Swordsman, and in fact, but is a poor drug addict is back monopoly Wandering Road. network really tempted too much, there are treasures.
W ah
T again could not move the nails do not play to cut off (do not know really a)
can not play too fast to answer the phone SORRY
W right, his practice now, little sister! (leather end)
T ah you're the little brother what is a mature person I ( do not think small)
W en
big sister (whatever you had)
T hand hurts (that point easily, and find reasons)
They say I play fast to say to you I'm typing fast slow angry
say what use I play are like hieroglyphics word
good grass led a mess statement can not be that unreasonable but also to change really fast
W
T ah of course, our leaders can understand the words no one but me
W has a one hundred word is enough.
T God you are the group of lunatic, typing crazy (Oh, that crazy ah)
Will You are such a calligraphy work hours, ah (or talk something else)
you are a woman you do not like beauty
you do not like nice clothes girl
our 20-year-old Shanghai to the beauty shop the
following her whisper T, W for me (dizzy, but still not convinced)
T did not pursue ~ approximately 200 words)
W What do you mean?
game?
T Yes, playing it, you said you play gone then, ah (Oh, and then more than once)
Hurry
2 
W ~ 1 minute to copy, send)
T wow,
amazing, admire admired (amazed,)
I throw in the towel, do not bother you, you're busy (really a fighter, right)
(you still too tender, so I finally did not Goof )

Question the assumptions of mainstream economics

 This article contains br> From the History of Economic Theory, Economics and Ethics of Engineering includes two aspects, however, rehabilitation classical dynasties, more and more abandoned by the Western mainstream economics concerns the content of ethics, to restore human nature animal instinct of self-preservation from the biological point of view of human social behavior; result, the economics research makes increasingly narrow, accordingly, economics, research methods are increasingly abstract and mathematical. For this reason, modern mainstream economic theory in its assumptions on the basis of a series: such as profit maximization, perfect information, transitive preference, diminishing returns, rational expectations, a perfectly competitive market, given preferences, the concepts of the parties are non-productive Economists were assumed. In view of mainstream economics, economic theory is abstract and general development of the process, for the vast majority of mainstream economists are abstract methods for such defense. For example, Stigler to emphasize that useful theory, even if it is only used once the core problem is that these assumptions are realistic or non-realism, such as the Meiji that the economics of the most important methodological issues are and will continue to be known as the theory of the future and its assumptions of realism. [�� ]
In fact, Rorty has pointed out that the only standard of truth can only be explained to us the sum of consistency, including their presence in the world with our values and consistency of purpose; for example, the reason is that Newtonian physics than Aristotle's physics, not because it more closely with the reality of the consistency between, but because it enables us to better cope with life. [��] Then, the core assumptions of modern mainstream economics Rational economic man mm mm connotation really allows us to economic and non-economic explanation of the phenomenon is inherently the same? this rational behavior and its derivatives will enable us to better cope with life? One obvious fact is that With the study of economics changes and the resulting return to the political economy, the original neo-classical focus on the relationship between persons and things have been less and less naturalistic thinking applied; because it involves human must have a rational relationship between the social, which need to look at the meaning of social rationality. It is not considered a rational change of meaning, the mainstream game theory, new classical economics simply dealing with the relationship between human and object formed blend of instrumental rationality together to explore the interaction between human beings, the results of the Prisoner's Dilemma to draw the balance of the general proposition; accordingly, according to this way of instrumental rationality to the implementation of principal - agent style of governance, to encourage the breeding of the compatible with a large number of phenomena. The problem is, in reality, there's plight than the theory, much less is derived, the basic facts of human social development is the radius of the expanding cooperation; Obviously, this reflects the theory of modern economics and there is a big disconnect between the reality. In fact, the only focus on the personal interests of the instrumental rationality is often considered suitable only in the case of zero-sum game, and once extended to the case of variable-sum game, since people can get more rent a large cooperation, focusing on long-term benefits may be more practical communicative rationality, which involves the coordination behavior between people.
However, despite marked a profound mark on the economic man instrumental rationality that does not meet the reality, shift the economy of modern mainstream economics, but people assume that their own theoretical system as the cornerstone, and that Use mathematical tools to make economics more scientific and accurate. It is based on this doctrine, the vast majority of modern economics, the critique can turn a blind eye and a deaf ear, Lin Jinzhong out the following: 1. mainstream economics can easily the history of economics to resolve the all for its the basis of its theoretical system and the logical starting point, without having to worry about building the theory of the act due to the obvious assumption that a theoretical assumptions of the real issue of whether more can be based on Friedman's [��]
problem is that Friedman's It is by the The relationship between economic phenomenon itself is complex and changeable, so economics is often true and accurate can not have both; then, that the pursuit of modern economics, The scientific study it? Obviously, if we are really explain the theory of social and economic phenomenon as it is science, then, assuming the reality of whether or not the development of economic theory is not important. That being the case, we How to make assumptions and reflect the reality of abstract theory while contributing to the establishment of it? This requires that follows the historical and logical consistency requirements: on the one hand, we can not arbitrarily disregard of the facts to make assumptions, however, interpreted accordingly reasoning to a conclusion; the other hand, we can not accept the naive empiricist view, trying to find a simple theory from the facts. In fact, Whitehead to emphasize that a science of its own assumptions must remain vigilant and critical . On the assumption of modern economics, in recent years has caused a lot of scholars, [��] In this paper, based on the literature, and further to the assumptions of modern mainstream economics unreasonable for an analysis, and further explore the construct reasonable assumptions of the way.
Second, mainstream economics assumes no correlation between the reality of
general, abstraction is a basic path of economic research, but also the fundamental characteristics of theoretical research. For example, Des Moines to pointed out that so, the abstract analysis has been advocating a purely economic theory that emphasized academics. For example, Neville. Keynes that not to consider the special economic conditions r sacrifice will be the exact same universality as the cost of attempting to make our back to those actually involved in the complexity of economic life. Suppose r can not be entirely realistic r. l on the wheat market a complete r-l theory of realism, not only the need to include the supply and demand will determine those situations, but also includes a cash or credit instruments trading types; also include each trader hair and eye color, his character, experience, education and other personal characteristics; wheat soil type, soil physical and chemical properties, in the main weather conditions during the growing ; wheat farmers acute end-use consumers in the personal characteristics of wheat mm and so on, are endless. To achieve such a l r and the real efforts made white elephant, is bound to make the theory useless. [��]
path based on abstract analysis, in a series built on the basis of a priori theoretical assumption has become the mainstream of economics: Adam Smith's invisible hand, the Ricardian equivalence in exchange for a price of Russian forest theorem, the cross elasticity of Marshall and the Phillips curve, etc., are true. Moreover, the abstract will definitely lay down some restrictive conditions, which are constructed based on the general theory of abstraction will tend to gradually detached from the concrete reality. For example, Hart pointed out that complex reality of the essential characteristics of the abstract. said: There are five general equilibrium theory assumes that each assumption may have five different reasons does not match reality, but this is to provide one of the most useful economic theory. Furthermore, in the modern mainstream economists, , the effectiveness of the theory explained by its ability to predict the phenomena to determine the authenticity of assumptions without care, even assuming the truth is often unrelated to their prediction. which is the master of Friedman, He stressed that an outstanding, assuming r l it the more divorced from reality. gradually lost economic rationality assumptions of interest; further in under the control of various immunization strategy, the development of theoretical assumptions or empirical evidence can be perfectly justifiable to evade inspection, the kind of irregular trying to use empirical people to reflect on the phenomenon of mainstream economics is often criticized as the society of people with rich natural disposition of the heterogeneity of the abstract to an average of the atom; and that the individual atoms or a combination of abnormalities: a Superman-like computing rational and has the motivation of animal preservation instinct. Thus, a fully maximize the benefits of rational advocates of mainstream economics to be the logic of modern objects, economic man will constitute the core assumptions of modern economics. In particular, research in economics has been greatly expanded and more focused on specific human behavior in social relations today, the abstract analysis not only without the slightest pause, but even more courage, abstract thinking in modern economics has become more expansive. For example, Allais pointed out that Occam's razor principle, after the economist Adam Smith is highly simplified by studying the behavior of variables under ideal gradually formed a set of formal, rigorous system of economic theory hh question is not too abstract neo-classical theory. In fact, it rehabilitation to include a higher level of abstraction. , religion, law, at all levels, regardless of whether the test can be experienced. For example, rational choice theory in the legislative act being extended to when Strom wrote that: scientists were asked to predict the fall from the trees where the leaves will fall. According to free-fall theory, the physicists know that the leaf will fall toward the (main trends), and may fall from the trees near place. However, the wind direction and gust strength is uncertain, physicists can not accurately predict the placement of the leaves. Similarly, the space in the legislative decision-making rational actors in the development of theory, the theorists have chosen to ignore the role of gust the theory of the initial concentration of the main trend in the legislative acts, the tendency by legislators and their preferences to maximize their preferences taken the decision error-free strategy. academia, such simple as possible, not only requires fewer restrictions to the extent possible, and can not be demanding restrictions entirely consistent reality. on the methodology of economics is the most classic paper by Friedman's Friedman put forward the famous assumptions not related to r l proposition, the implication is that the role of theory is to explain phenomena and predict phenomena. For the theory of choice to infer whether the theory was consistent, that is, whether the theory can explain and predict phenomenon, based on theoretical assumptions and not based on correct. For example, in the famous theory of international trade factor price convergence theory l r, Thus, the argument that if trade in goods between the two countries is completely free, there is no trade friction and transaction costs through trade in goods, labor and capital between the two countries will be convergence of factor prices. Obviously, there is no complete freedom, there is no friction and transaction costs of trade, but can not be used to negate this theory, whether to accept the theory, based on open trade between the two countries since the gap between wages and interest rates are reduced may be. Theory and maps as a tool to save the information as long as it shows the causal relationship between the main variables to. So, to round off as unimportant conditions, retaining only the most important conditions. Otherwise, the theory did not save the information, will not become a theory. said: general equilibrium theory provides a useful frame of reference, as no mechanical friction state theorems, although no friction assumption is clearly unrealistic; general equilibrium theory in the Arrow - Debreu theorem of property rights theory as the Coase Theorem, corporate finance theory Modigeli Anne - Miller theorems provide a frame of reference, which does not lie in the importance of their own frame of reference whether they accurately describe the reality, because they established a number of so a better understanding of the reality of the scale, thus the analysis by economists as their reference point. [14]
, of course, the reason why the modern mainstream economics tried to assume the defense of non-reality, mainly trying to physics to seek basis for learning. For example, in the ideal gas equation: PV = RT, is full of a variety of unrealistic assumptions: the volume of gas molecules is zero, the interaction between gas molecules is zero, the gas molecules perfectly elastic; Similarly, the law of free fall in the:, there are a series of unrealistic assumptions: zero pressure, objects falling in a vacuum, all other (such as the moon) in zero gravity, all the magnetic force is zero, the radius of the earth is infinite . just to Friedman as the representative of the modern mainstream economists seem more extreme, not only in economics assume this is not the authenticity of the defense, and even the validity of the theory and assumptions of authenticity against each other. Friedman's explanation is: the fact that the evidence will never be able to prove a hypothesis but only whether the license permits it or not, but any one of the hypotheses in the description of their hypotheses must be false, is speculation in the content , the hypothesis has Characteristics of making a false hypothesis of a direct falsification loses its meaning, the validity of the hypotheses the only fair, is it appropriate to test the prediction compared with the evidence; Therefore, l limited evidence to explain the fact that most r, that is, if a hypothesis that is intended to explain the phenomena which conditions a large number of complex, abstract and critical factors in common, and can ensure that these factors reasonable on the basis of speculation, then, this hypothesis is important. Therefore, to become an important hypothesis, it must discard the assumptions described in some aspects of authenticity, it does not take into account and explain the circumstances, it is the largest success is that it can prove that the phenomenon of many other events associated with both major and independent phenomena to be explained. But criticism by many economists, of which there are more well-known Koopmans, Luo Tewei and Samuelson result. For example, Koopmans said: separation. only assume that the logic of the content is important Economic theory emphasizes the certainty of the premise that the correctness of the conclusion can only be built on the premise to prove the authenticity of the basis, and Samuelson will be Friedman's view as (three basic assumptions. In fact, although the theory of any subject does contain non-realistic assumptions, however, this non-realistic assumptions on the requirements of different levels are different, they can not, as Friedman asserts that all is false; and, not accurately predict the effectiveness of a theory the only appropriate means of inspection, if they are the only appropriate means of inspection, it will be impossible to distinguish between true and false relationships. Moreover, although Modern mainstream economics, seeking to imitate the natural science of physics, but their assumptions on the characteristics of different levels but there is a fundamental difference; Although modern mainstream economics of highly abstract mathematics achieved its However, the results presented so far is the science and natural science simply can not compare.
Third, the assumptions of economics and natural science experts in Meiji Economic Methodology
compared to a theoretical assumption was simply divided into two levels: the core assumptions (core assumptions) and external assumptions (peripheral assumptions), and the assumption that these two levels have different requirements: on the one hand, the core assumption is the essence of the phenomenon under study abstract, the theoretical has a key role, which requires that the inherent nature of things as much as possible and reveal the true mechanism; the other hand, the external assumptions, such assumptions can be ignored and the initial steps of assumptions, but can eliminate the interference and confusion to the actual help found that the nature of things, and thus assumed to be relatively peripheral to leave the reality. peripherals not assume that the reason lies in the reality of limited, non-reality of the external assumptions are often secondary causes of the phenomenon of help from the isolated mainly from sub- related factors, isolate the root of the relationship, which can be used to offset the research of the phenomenon is not the key factors are not essential but helps to find the essence of things; the contrary, if all the factors or conditions are required to maintain true, then it can not theorize but only one specific case studies. It is based on two different levels of assumptions, we can guarantee that not only has the abstract theory, but also scientific, to achieve the unity of the abstract and scientific, the on the establishment of a unified theory and the empirical basis of reductionism: on the one hand, while with the unrealistic nature of the external assumptions, but these unrealistic conditions can be controlled by experiments, which can depend on the conditions of the theoretical and abstract assumptions to recover consistent; the other hand, it is assumed by the external conditions of recovery, to be confirmed by experiments to test the theory, thus ensuring the true and scientific. Thus, although theories are often non-realistic, abstract theory is Institute necessary; However, assuming that is not arbitrary, especially the core assumptions need as close as possible the essence of things. Moreover, even assuming the periphery of the other, nor is it free to ignore, but there is a assumption of ignoring Assuming the above two requirements are often met: the core assumptions of physics to the extent possible, reflect the essence of things, such as the law of free fall () in the object is reflected by the Earth's gravitational field to attract the core assumptions, as well as vacuum There is no other attraction to the construction of the external terms of assumptions of the theory is relatively not very important; And, like the air buoyancy and wind speed or wind direction and other interference factors can be controlled through human means, which can be an empirical test of the theory . In a sense, it reflects the gravity hypothesis of the nature of the interaction between object recognition, it is to maintain the natural balance between the basic force of things; that is, natural science emphasized the need to match with the reality of the core Assuming that is the essence of things. In general, understanding of the nature of this reflects the deepening of human intelligence, the natural sciences to explore the laws of nature actually is to reveal the nature of things and the things that effect between the inner mechanism Although this effect under different external conditions, the result may be totally different. For example, understanding of force, merely the next earliest possible force in the macro, then slowly realize that the forces between molecules and the formation of magnetic field; while at the same magnetic field, the air buoyancy or other external things may change between the intensity and direction.
However, modern mainstream economics thinking has been put aside on the nature of inquiry, and the Just as a kind of core assumptions to facilitate the provisions of reasoning can be arbitrary assumptions. For example, in economics, the theory of maximizing behavior, not only as its core assumption of economic man is simply not the reality itself, the self-interest of social behavior can not be accessible natural harmony; and, as the external conditions of complete information assumptions often can not be artificially controlled and therefore economic theory of , the fully rational economic man is the core of this hypothesis, but the content of rational (or rational pursuit of the objects which) had not yet reached a consensus, how can we say that the core assumption is that reality? Of course, modern mainstream economics often based on human instinct and the limited rationality of the pursuit of material interests, but the behavior deviations are considered the result of other constraints, it is obviously not in conformity with the difference between the social reality of the social person. Another , the complete information assumption is to maximize the external behavior, precisely because of incomplete information has led to limited human rationality, and the resulting acts of bias or error; but obviously, impossible to get complete information to will not be able to test this theory on the maximum, when you see the anomaly, we will not be able to judge this is due to incomplete information or errors caused by the normal human behavior irrational.
and natural science is emphasized idealized abstraction, there are two reasons for this: one who causes all the specific objects composed of similar materials and showed very similar characteristics, thus subject to the same specific law; the two, the object of their environment and each other between the role of great stability, which can isolate a particular object as a partial analysis. But clearly, the situation faced by economics is entirely different: a person, each of the specific characteristics of actors there is often a great difference between the behavior characteristics of each person is different; the two, the environment in which each person is always uncertain, and, other contributing factors can not be really excluded. precisely because social phenomena between relations to more complex, not even the existence of a major factor, therefore, economics can not exist as natural science as an ideal experimental conditions will affect the psychological and other factors aside; particular, economics is fundamentally to address specific social problems, and any factors that may lead to a slightly different error practice results, which will lead to over-abstraction of theory and practice of economics, there is a growing disconnect between. For example, Qian Yingyi to recognize the economic human behavior based on assumptions, economists often come unexpectedly but in fact the logical conclusion is reasonable; For this reason, we will hear people exclaim: worse, at first is the study of these purely economic perspective of behavioral economics continue to be extended to political science, sociology, research such as elections, political, family, marriage and other issues, the results obtained in these areas often opposite to our daily experience of human relations and even contrary to the moral point of view. Since these conclusions are surprising, of course, is that people will not portray real life; the contrary, the number of main stems from the physical or logical, and thus inevitably can not explain the real causes of social phenomena.
In particular, the economic logic of the game itself is not but one Zhiyong of science, economics and even transform reality to help explain the purpose; is based on this point, Simon believes that Friedman and Any complete vacuum, but because some of the real world situation and close enough to full vacuum, so that his hypothesis meaningful. as to self-serving as the goal of maximizing the fundamental principle of human choice not correctly formulated problem. precisely because of the blind worship of modern mainstream economics, some of abstract methodology, seeking to build under the unreasonable assumption that the logic of precision, this is actually the fundamental research methodology is not scientific disciplines; this reason, economics predicted theoretically doomed to failure, Kaldor pointed out, theories are abstract, and must be so, because there is no abstract to no analysis of the mm but it is an abstract from mistakes, and thus distorted reflection of the nature of the operation of economic forces and form. Man's correct conclusion, but the false premise two conclusions mm able to get right or wrong conclusions; Clearly, economics is the correct conclusion you want, and therefore must ensure that the assumption is reasonable. For this reason, that Samuelson Friedman and tools the most fundamental error doctrine is not that non-realism is not a theory or hypothesis of the defect, not only that, also see it as a virtue, it is a mistake on a mistake. Similarly, Hausmann also pointed out that Friedman's argument there is a logical error, because the logic of Friedman's premise that guess But clearly, from the logical premise of modern mainstream economics are the logical results are often derived not consistent with reality, in which the key is, reveal the mechanism of action between things.
In fact, Friedman's mode, all the real logic of scientific explanation have a common structure, in explaining the nature and the nature of prophecy have enjoyed a perfect, logical view of symmetry, all using the same logic rules; only difference between the two is that explained after the event occurred, and predicted before the event occurs. For explanation, we need to explain the events from the start, to find at least a universal law and a set of initial conditions that logically should be included on the description of the event explained that, with a special reason to the interpretation of an event as simply the sum of the event to explain or subsumed into a set of general rules of law; and for predictions, we are from a general rules and a set of initial conditions starting from which we deduce that on an unknown event, that is, predictions are typically used to test whether the common law recognized in fact. However, despite the general rule applied by the Special prediction of events to test this rule, but used in the interpretation of the general laws that are not isolated cases were summarized by the generalized and lead out of the observation of events; Because of this, covering law model of scientific explanation has to be an attack from a variety of positions, and even the model of the most enterprising defenders Hempel himself in the years before this attack are also some retreat. Most critics agree that the interpretation of prophecy does not necessarily contain even interpretation does not necessarily contain predictions; because prophecy only to clarify the relevant factors required, however, to explain, it is much more complicated things.
Obviously, Friedman is not based on the assumption of reality and relevance of come to a rational argument that does not have the school do not meet the requirements of logical consistency; Simon to emphasize its lead to the necessary concessions; the approximate continuity, we have allowed this concession. Man on the definition of positive science is a tool doctrine, but simply not in the theory of scientific inquiry; but even so, Hausmann also pointed out that The results are important. Therefore Friedman's central thesis, namely, l hypothetical reality and irrelevant to the evaluation of scientific theories r, is untenable. because the economics of a number of construction is testable, Therefore, the standard tool for advocates will not refuse such an obvious falsification. Realism is l r, because they never